Basophil
Background
Section titled “Background”Basophils are a type of white blood cell (leukocyte) that play a crucial role in the immune system, particularly in allergic reactions and defense against parasites. Historically, blood cell characteristics were primarily assessed through classical complete blood counts (cCBCs), which provide basic information such as cell counts and average volumes. However, cCBCs do not offer insights into the intricate intracellular structures that are vital for cellular function.[1] Advancements in technology, particularly the integration of flow cytometry into automated hematology analyzers, have revolutionized blood cell analysis. These devices utilize laser light to measure fluorescence and diffraction patterns from individual blood cells, enabling the detection of subtle variations in cellular properties.[1]For basophils, these measurements include Forward Scatter (FSC), which indicates cell size, and Side Fluorescence (SFL), which reflects nucleic acid content.[1], [2]This detailed phenotyping provides a more comprehensive understanding of basophil morphology and function beyond simple enumeration.
Biological Basis
Section titled “Biological Basis”Basophils are granulocytes, meaning they contain prominent cytoplasmic granules filled with various mediators, including histamine, heparin, and proteolytic enzymes. Upon activation, typically by allergens or pathogens, basophils release these mediators, contributing to inflammatory responses, vasodilation, and bronchodilation, which are characteristic of allergic reactions like asthma and anaphylaxis.
The flow cytometry parameters used in basophil analysis, such as FSC and SFL, offer indirect insights into their biological state. FSC provides information on the overall cell size, which can change during activation or in various pathological conditions. SFL, reflecting nucleic acid and membrane lipid content, can indicate cellular activity, maturity, or the presence of specific internal structures.[2]While Side Scatter (SSC), an index of cell granulation, is commonly measured for other granulocytes like neutrophils and eosinophils, basophil characterization often relies on SFL and FSC parameters.[1]
Clinical Relevance
Section titled “Clinical Relevance”Precise basophil measurements are clinically relevant for diagnosing and monitoring a range of conditions. Alterations in basophil counts (basophilia or basopenia) or changes in their morphological parameters can be indicative of allergic diseases, parasitic infections, autoimmune disorders, and certain hematological malignancies. For instance, increased basophil counts are frequently observed in chronic myeloid leukemia.
Beyond simple counts, advanced flow cytometry-based measurements of basophils and other blood cells have been implicated as statistical predictors of clinical outcomes in various diseases.[1] Perturbational phenotyping, where blood cells are analyzed under different conditions, further reveals genetically determined traits associated with common diseases.[2]A specific functional assay, Basophil Activation Testing (BAT), measures the expression of activation markers on the cell surface in response to specific stimuli, proving valuable in the diagnosis of allergies and the assessment of anaphylaxis risk.[3]This approach offers a more dynamic and functional assessment of basophil involvement in disease.
Social Importance
Section titled “Social Importance”The ability to accurately measure and interpret basophil characteristics holds significant social importance, impacting public health through improved diagnostics, personalized medicine, and drug development. By providing a deeper understanding of the genetic and cellular underpinnings of basophil biology, these measurements can lead to more refined clinical trajectories and the identification of genetic variants with large effect sizes that contribute to human disease.[2] Research, including large-scale genome-wide association studies (GWAS), has begun to uncover the genetic basis of blood cell traits, including those related to basophils.[1], [4]This knowledge is crucial for identifying novel therapeutic targets and developing more effective treatments for allergic diseases, inflammatory conditions, and hematological disorders. Implementing these advanced phenotyping methods in routine clinical settings has the potential to facilitate earlier diagnosis, better risk stratification, and the development of targeted interventions, ultimately improving patient outcomes and quality of life.
Methodological and Variability
Section titled “Methodological and Variability”Measurements of specific blood cell types, including basophils, are subject to inherent methodological and technical variability that can influence the robustness and interpretation of findings. The cytometry devices employed for perturbational blood cell phenotyping are primarily designed for routine whole-blood cell counts, which may not be optimally configured for the detailed, nuanced measurements required for specific cellular responses, such as those of basophils.[2] Furthermore, non-complete blood count (ncCBC) traits, which encompass many novel flow cytometry-derived parameters for cells like basophils, exhibit greater technical variability compared to conventional CBC traits. While statistical adjustments are applied to mitigate technical variation arising from machine drift, calibration inconsistencies, and even seasonal physiological changes, the potential for between-instrument variation remains a significant consideration for non-genetic studies.[1]
Generalizability and Cohort Specificity
Section titled “Generalizability and Cohort Specificity”A significant limitation in understanding the genetic basis of basophil characteristics, and indeed many blood cell traits, stems from the predominant European ancestry of study cohorts. This restricts the generalizability of identified genetic associations to diverse populations and hinders robust multi-ancestry analyses due to the limited representation of other ancestry groups.[2]While some studies have explored cross-ancestry validation for lead variants, revealing consistent trends but also notable disparities in effect directions for specific single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), the comprehensive trans-ancestry genetic architecture governing evoked blood cell responses, including those of basophils, remains largely uncharacterized.[2] This ancestral bias means that genetic insights may not be universally applicable, necessitating future investigations across more diverse populations.
Statistical Power and Confounding Factors
Section titled “Statistical Power and Confounding Factors”The statistical power of genetic association studies for basophil measurements can be constrained by several factors. Despite the identification of strong associations for certain variants with specific perturbed white blood cell responses, the overall number of study participants for detailed perturbational phenotypes can be limited.[2]Additionally, the analysis of numerous correlated phenotypes, such as various basophil activation states or morphological parameters, without comprehensive multiple testing correction at the association P-value level, carries a risk of inflated false positive findings.[2]Another confounding factor is the lack of detailed information regarding medications taken by participants, which introduces an inability to fully exclude confounding due to differential prescribing patterns by genotype, potentially influencing observed basophil traits.[1]
Clinical Data and Replication Challenges
Section titled “Clinical Data and Replication Challenges”The utility and interpretation of findings related to basophil measurements can be impacted by limitations inherent in the clinical data sources and the novelty of the phenotypes themselves. When linking genetically determined basophil traits to clinical outcomes, reliance on Electronic Health Record (EHR) data poses challenges, including incomplete capture of an individual’s full medical history and potential discrepancies in the recorded age of disease onset versus diagnosis.[2]Although methods like Cox proportional hazard models with delayed entry are employed to address incomplete observations, the accurate timing of disease onset can still be misrepresented due to these EHR constraints.[2]Furthermore, many non-CBC phenotypes, including detailed basophil characteristics, are novel in genetic studies, leading to a scarcity of independent replication datasets. While confidence is drawn from the high replicability of standard CBC trait associations, the ultimate validation of these novel genetic associations for specific cell types remains an ongoing challenge.[1]
Variants
Section titled “Variants”Genetic variants influencing the development, function, and response of immune cells, including basophils, contribute to individual differences in blood cell traits and susceptibility to various diseases. These variations can impact critical transcription factors, immune receptors, or broader cellular processes, ultimately affecting how basophils are measured and how they respond to environmental or pathological stimuli. The study of these genetic associations often involves perturbational phenotyping, where blood cells are exposed to various agents to reveal latent genetic effects on cellular responses.[2] Several variants are located within or near genes known to be master regulators of hematopoiesis and myeloid differentiation. For instance, variants such as rs76222971 , rs78744187 , and rs12151289 are associated with the _SLC7A10_ and _CEBPA_ locus, while rs4982731 is linked to _CIROP_ and _CEBPE_. _CEBPA_ and _CEBPE_ are key transcription factors vital for the maturation of myeloid cells, including granulocytes like basophils, with _CEBPE_ being particularly essential for their terminal differentiation. Similarly, _RUNX1_, associated with rs2834670 , is a fundamental regulator of blood cell development, and _GATA2-AS1_ (with variant rs73203442 ) influences _GATA2_, a critical factor for hematopoietic stem cell maintenance and progenitor cell development.[2]Alterations in these regulatory genes can significantly impact basophil production, differentiation, and overall function, affecting their numbers and activity in the bloodstream.
Other variants affect genes involved in immune signaling and cell trafficking. For example, rs163546 , rs3217673 , and rs334782 are associated with _IL5RA_, which encodes the alpha subunit of the Interleukin-5 receptor. Interleukin-5 is a cytokine known to promote the growth, differentiation, and activation of eosinophils, and it also plays a role in basophil biology.[1] Variations in _IL5RA_ could therefore modulate the responsiveness of basophils to IL-5, potentially influencing their survival or activation states. The variant rs2814778 is linked to _ACKR1_ (Duffy antigen), a chemokine receptor that can regulate chemokine availability and influence immune cell migration. While primarily recognized for its role in red blood cells, _ACKR1_ variations might indirectly affect the trafficking and localization of basophils, thus contributing to observed differences in their circulating levels or responses to inflammatory cues.[2] Furthermore, variants near long intergenic non-coding RNAs (_LINC01565_ with rs4857909 , rs6782812 , rs7646596 , and _LINC02801_ with rs11161968 , rs6684992 , rs4655950 ) and genes involved in broader cellular processes like protein modification (_RPN1_), extracellular matrix components (_EXT1_ with rs6469721 , rs2514757 , *rs12548404 ), or apoptosis (BAK1P1` with *rs6057618 *) also contribute to the genetic landscape of blood cell traits. Although their direct impact on basophil-specific functions may be less characterized, non-coding RNAs can regulate gene expression, and fundamental cellular processes are essential for the health and function of all blood cells, including basophils.[2]These variants, through their influence on basic cellular mechanisms, can contribute to the complex variability in basophil measurements and their responses under different physiological or perturbed conditions.
Key Variants
Section titled “Key Variants”| RS ID | Gene | Related Traits |
|---|---|---|
| rs76222971 rs78744187 rs12151289 | SLC7A10 - CEBPA | basophil erythrocyte count |
| rs4857909 rs6782812 rs7646596 | LINC01565 - RPN1 | transcobalamin-1 eosinophil count basophil |
| rs73203442 | GATA2-AS1 - LINC01565 | hematological basophil |
| rs2814778 | ACKR1, CADM3-AS1 | neutrophil count neutrophil count, eosinophil count granulocyte count neutrophil count, basophil count leukocyte quantity |
| rs4982731 | CIROP - CEBPE | acute lymphoblastic leukemia basophil percentage of leukocytes basophil percentage of granulocytes basophil |
| rs6469721 rs2514757 rs12548404 | EXT1 - SAMD12 | basophil |
| rs163546 rs3217673 rs334782 | IL5RA | basophil percentage of granulocytes hematological basophil |
| rs2834670 | RUNX1 | monocyte count basophil count basophil |
| rs11161968 rs6684992 rs4655950 | LINC02801 | eosinophil count basophil |
| rs6057618 | C20orf203 - BAK1P1 | hematological basophil |
Basophil Definition and Clinical Significance
Section titled “Basophil Definition and Clinical Significance”Basophils are a distinct type of granulocyte, a subset of white blood cells, characterized by the presence of prominent intracellular granules [. These advanced analyzers often integrate flow cytometry capabilities, enabling the of structural properties such as forward scatter (FSC), indicative of cell size, and side scatter (SSC), which reflects intracellular organelle complexity and granule content.[1]Given the prominent granules characteristic of basophils, these flow cytometry parameters offer valuable early insights into basophil morphology and potential abnormalities, which are crucial for their role in innate immune responses.[1]
Advanced Flow Cytometry and Functional Assays
Section titled “Advanced Flow Cytometry and Functional Assays”Beyond basic enumeration, advanced flow cytometry techniques and specialized functional assays provide a more in-depth diagnostic evaluation of basophil characteristics and activity. These methods leverage additional parameters, such as side fluorescence (SFL) to assess nucleic acid content, alongside FSC and SSC, allowing for a more granular characterization of basophil populations.[1]The assessment of basophil granularity is particularly important due to the critical role of their granules in releasing mediators during immune responses.[1]Furthermore, specific functional tests, such as basophil activation testing, are employed to directly evaluate the responsiveness and activation status of basophils, offering direct evidence of their immune function.[3]Perturbational blood cell phenotyping, which involves analyzing cellular responses to various stimuli using cytometry devices, can also generate high-dimensional quantitative readouts that reflect basophil behavior under different conditions, aiding in the identification of disease-associated latent traits.[2]
Genetic Insights and Differential Diagnosis
Section titled “Genetic Insights and Differential Diagnosis”Genetic testing and molecular markers contribute significantly to understanding the etiology of basophil abnormalities and to distinguishing them from other conditions with similar presentations. Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified numerous genetic loci associated with various blood cell traits, including those influencing cellular morphology and the formation of granules, which are highly relevant to basophil biology.[1] These studies help elucidate the molecular pathways that modulate cellular complexity and granule content, providing insights into genetically determined predispositions or conditions affecting basophils.[1]Accurate diagnosis of primary basophil disorders requires careful integration of clinical findings, comprehensive laboratory results, and genetic information to differentiate them from secondary changes caused by other inflammatory, allergic, or myeloproliferative conditions, thereby enhancing diagnostic precision and guiding appropriate therapeutic strategies.
Cellular Identity and Function of Basophils
Section titled “Cellular Identity and Function of Basophils”Basophils are a critical component of the innate immune system, identifiable by their unique structural characteristics and the presence of prominent intracellular granules.[1] These granules are rich in various biomolecules that play vital roles in immune responses, particularly in allergic reactions and defense against parasites.[1] The distinct morphology and internal complexity of basophils, including their granule content, can be detected and quantified using flow cytometry, a technique that measures the side-scattered light (SSC) and side fluorescence (SFL) properties of individual cells.[1] These optical measurements serve as indicators of cellular granularity and nucleic acid content, offering insights into the physiological state of basophils.[1]The activation state of basophils is a key aspect of their function, influencing their role in health and disease. Basophil activation can be assessed through specific testing methods, reflecting their readiness to participate in immune responses.[3] When activated, basophils release the contents of their granules through a process called degranulation, contributing to inflammatory processes and immune modulation.[1] This release of potent mediators underscores their importance in both protective immunity and the pathogenesis of allergic disorders.
Molecular Pathways Governing Basophil Granule Biology
Section titled “Molecular Pathways Governing Basophil Granule Biology”The formation and function of basophil granules are governed by complex molecular and cellular pathways. Granule biogenesis is a cell-type specific process that occurs during particular stages of cellular differentiation, originating in immature precursors within the bone marrow.[1] This process involves the intricate synthesis, packaging, and sorting of various biomolecules into distinct granule subsets.[5] Key proteins, enzymes, and regulatory elements orchestrate the formation of these intracellular structures, ensuring the correct cargo is loaded for subsequent release.[1] Critical proteins involved in granule formation and exocytosis include those implicated in vesicular transport and membrane fusion, such as AP1M2 and SMAP1.[1]The cargo within basophil granules comprises a diverse array of proteins, some with antimicrobial properties, reflecting their role in innate immunity.[1] Examples of such granule cargo proteins identified in related granulocytes include FCN1, HYAL3, PRG2, RNASE3, ARSB, LPO, and DEFA, while CTNS and HEXB are associated with lysozyme cargo.[1]These biomolecules are essential for the basophil’s ability to exert its immune functions upon activation.
Genetic and Transcriptional Control of Basophil Traits
Section titled “Genetic and Transcriptional Control of Basophil Traits”The characteristics and functions of basophils are significantly influenced by a complex interplay of genetic mechanisms and regulatory networks. Genetic variations can impact gene functions, regulatory elements, and epigenetic modifications, thereby shaping the expression patterns of genes critical for basophil development and morphology.[6] High-power genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have identified genetic loci associated with various blood cell traits, including those related to intracellular structures like granules.[1] Such genetic associations can pinpoint key genes that regulate the formation and retention of these intracellular components in immune cells, including basophils.[1] Beyond structural genes, transcription factors and proteins involved in transcription and translation, such as AFF1, RPL3P2, and PTBP1, also play roles in determining cellular complexity and granule formation.[1] The dynamics of transcription regulation during myeloid differentiation, a process from which basophils arise, are crucial for the maturation of these blood cells.[7]Furthermore, epigenetic modifications contribute to the precise control of gene expression in immune cells, adding another layer of regulatory complexity to basophil biology.[6]These genetic and epigenetic factors collectively underpin the diversity and functional capacity of basophil populations.
Basophil Dynamics in Immune Homeostasis and Disease
Section titled “Basophil Dynamics in Immune Homeostasis and Disease”Basophils are integral to maintaining immune homeostasis and are implicated in various pathophysiological processes. Their ability to release potent inflammatory mediators means they contribute to the body’s protective responses against pathogens, but also to allergic and inflammatory diseases.[1]Disruptions in basophil development or function can lead to altered immune responses, highlighting their role in the etiology of immune disorders.[1]Perturbations in the cellular environment, whether through chemical stimuli or disease states, can induce changes in basophil characteristics, such as activation and degranulation, which can be detected and correlated with clinical outcomes.[2] The metabolic processes within basophils, similar to other immune cells, are crucial for their survival and activation, with metabolic shifts occurring throughout their lifecycle.[8] For instance, processes like gluconeogenesis and glycogenesis are known to fuel immune responses, suggesting a dynamic metabolic adaptation in these cells.[9]Understanding the intricate balance of these cellular functions, molecular pathways, and genetic influences is essential for comprehending the systemic consequences of basophil dysregulation in conditions ranging from allergies to broader immune dysfunctions.[1]
Large-scale Cohort Investigations and Genetic Associations
Section titled “Large-scale Cohort Investigations and Genetic Associations”Large-scale population cohorts have been instrumental in advancing the understanding of blood cell traits, including basophil parameters, through genetic epidemiology. Studies like the INTERVAL study, which enrolled approximately 45,000 blood donors, and subsequent validations within the UK Biobank, involving around 424,000 participants, have enabled comprehensive genome-wide association studies (GWAS).[1] These investigations identify genetic determinants influencing various aspects of blood cell morphology and function.[1]Such high-power GWAS move beyond traditional complete blood counts by utilizing advanced flow-cytometry to capture detailed properties of intracellular structures, offering deeper insights into the biological variation of basophils and their potential roles in disease etiology.[1] This approach allows for the discovery of genetic risk loci and the systematic validation of cellular targets, paving the way for refined clinical trajectories and drug discovery.[2]
Cross-Population Variability and Ancestry-Specific Genetic Architecture
Section titled “Cross-Population Variability and Ancestry-Specific Genetic Architecture”Population studies highlight significant variability in blood cell traits, including basophil characteristics, across different ancestry groups. Research encompassing hundreds of thousands of individuals from multiple global populations has explored trans-ethnic and ancestry-specific blood-cell genetics.[4]These analyses reveal consistent trends in the direction of genetic effects but also underscore notable disparities for specific lead single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across diverse populations.[2] While these studies provide foundational insights into the polygenic and monogenic basis of blood traits, many current cohorts, such as the one described for perturbational phenotyping, have a predominant representation of European ancestry individuals, necessitating future investigations to fully unravel the trans-ancestry genetic basis governing evoked blood responses.[2]
Advanced Methodologies and Study Limitations
Section titled “Advanced Methodologies and Study Limitations”The robust assessment of basophil traits in population studies relies on sophisticated methodologies and stringent quality control. Automated hematology analyzers, such as the Sysmex XN-1000, are widely employed for perturbational blood cell phenotyping, measuring numerous cellular phenotypes under various conditions.[2]These instruments capture detailed parameters like forward scatter (FSC) for cell size, side scatter (SSC) for granulation, and side fluorescence (SFL) for nucleic acid content, which are crucial for characterizing basophils.[1] Methodological considerations include meticulous sample processing within specific timeframes (e.g., 36 hours from blood draw), comprehensive quality control to identify technical and biological variations, and the application of statistical adjustments to ensure data reliability.[2]While powerful, the generalizability of findings can be influenced by factors such as cohort representativeness and inherent limitations of using electronic health records for clinical outcomes, which may not capture complete medical histories or precise disease onset times.[2]
Frequently Asked Questions About Basophil
Section titled “Frequently Asked Questions About Basophil”These questions address the most important and specific aspects of basophil based on current genetic research.
1. Why are my allergy symptoms sometimes worse even when exposures are similar?
Section titled “1. Why are my allergy symptoms sometimes worse even when exposures are similar?”Your basophils, key immune cells, can change their size and internal makeup, affecting how strongly they react. Factors like stress or other infections can make them more reactive. This heightened sensitivity can lead to varied symptom severity even with similar allergen exposure.
2. Can my daily stress levels make my allergic reactions more severe?
Section titled “2. Can my daily stress levels make my allergic reactions more severe?”Yes, stress can influence your immune system, potentially making your basophils more prone to activation. When these cells release their inflammatory mediators, it can amplify allergic responses like asthma or skin reactions.
3. If my parents have bad allergies, will I automatically get them too?
Section titled “3. If my parents have bad allergies, will I automatically get them too?”While there’s a genetic predisposition to allergies, it’s not automatic. Your unique genetic makeup, influenced by many genetic variants, determines how your basophils respond. Lifestyle and environmental factors also play a significant role.
4. Does what I eat affect how my basophils react to allergens?
Section titled “4. Does what I eat affect how my basophils react to allergens?”The article doesn’t directly link specific diets to basophil reactivity or measurements. However, overall health and inflammation, which can be influenced by your diet, might indirectly affect immune cell function and how your basophils behave.
5. My doctor mentioned a special allergy test; is it more accurate than a skin prick?
Section titled “5. My doctor mentioned a special allergy test; is it more accurate than a skin prick?”Your doctor might be referring to Basophil Activation Testing (BAT), which measures how your basophils react to specific stimuli in a lab. This functional assay can be very valuable for diagnosing allergies and assessing anaphylaxis risk, offering a dynamic view beyond standard tests.
6. Why do people from different backgrounds seem to have different allergy risks?
Section titled “6. Why do people from different backgrounds seem to have different allergy risks?”Genetic studies on blood cell traits, including basophils, have primarily focused on European populations. This means the full picture of how ancestry influences the genetic risk for allergies and basophil responses is still being uncovered in diverse groups.
7. Could my constant fatigue be linked to how my basophils are behaving?
Section titled “7. Could my constant fatigue be linked to how my basophils are behaving?”Basophil changes can indicate underlying conditions like autoimmune disorders or chronic inflammation, which often cause fatigue. If your basophil counts or characteristics are altered, it could be a clue to your overall health state.
8. Is it true that my basophil measurements change with the seasons?
Section titled “8. Is it true that my basophil measurements change with the seasons?”Yes, technical variability in blood cell measurements can arise from factors like seasonal physiological changes. This means your basophil readings might show slight variations depending on the time of year, even when you’re generally healthy.
9. If I get a detailed blood test, can it predict my future health problems?
Section titled “9. If I get a detailed blood test, can it predict my future health problems?”Advanced measurements of basophils and other blood cells can act as statistical predictors for clinical outcomes in various diseases. These detailed insights can help assess your risk for certain conditions and guide personalized care.
10. Why do my allergy tests sometimes give confusing or inconsistent results?
Section titled “10. Why do my allergy tests sometimes give confusing or inconsistent results?”Measurements of blood cells like basophils can have technical variability due to the testing equipment, calibration, and even subtle changes in your body. This potential for variation means your doctor interprets results carefully, especially for non-routine parameters.
This FAQ was automatically generated based on current genetic research and may be updated as new information becomes available.
Disclaimer: This information is for educational purposes only and should not be used as a substitute for professional medical advice. Always consult with a healthcare provider for personalized medical guidance.
References
Section titled “References”[1] Akbari P, et al. “A genome-wide association study of blood cell morphology identifies cellular proteins implicated in disease aetiology.”Nature Communications, vol. 14, no. 1, 2023, p. 5023.
[2] Homilius M, et al. “Perturbational phenotyping of human blood cells reveals genetically determined latent traits associated with subsets of common diseases.” Nature Genetics, vol. 55, no. 12, 2023, pp. 2046-2059.
[3] MacGlashan, D. W. Jr. “Basophil activation testing.”J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., vol. 132, 2013, pp. 777–787.
[4] Chen, M.-H. et al. “Trans-ethnic and ancestry-specific blood-cell genetics in 746,667 individuals from 5 global populations.” Cell, vol. 182, 2020, pp. 1198–1213.e14.
[5] Rørvig, S. et al. “Proteome profiling of human neutrophil granule subsets, secretory vesicles, and cell membrane: correlation with transcriptome profiling of neutrophil precursors.”Journal of Leukocyte Biology, vol. 94, 2013, pp. 711–721.
[6] Chen, L. et al. “Genetic drivers of epigenetic and transcriptional variation in human immune cells.” Cell, vol. 167, 2016, pp. 1398–1414.
[7] Grassi, L. et al. “Dynamics of transcription regulation in human bone marrow myeloid differentiation to mature blood neutrophils.”Cell Reports, vol. 24, 2018, pp. 2784–2794.
[8] Injarabian, L. et al. “Neutrophil metabolic shift during their lifecycle: impact on their survival and activation.”International Journal of Molecular Sciences, vol. 21, 2019, p. 287.
[9] Sadiku, P. et al. “Neutrophils fuel effective immune responses through gluconeogenesis and glycogenesis.” Cell Metabolism, vol. 33, 2021, pp. 411–423.